VillaeRusticaeSouthernGermania Inferior

The landscape of southern Germania Inferior is dominated by several natural features, which determined the settlement pattern even in pre-Roman times. In the south, the tertiary mountains of the Eifel offer rich ore deposits. Further north, between the river valleys of the Maas and Rhine, stretch younger quaternary loess soils, offering ideal conditions for agriculture. North of these, roughly beyond a line from Roermond to Neuss, lie the low-lying northern German plains, characterised by sand and clay soils, which favour grazing regimes. Historically this is the area that Caesar described as part of the territory of the "Germani cisrhenani". The tribes subsumed under this heading were clearly differentiated by him by their customs and lifestyles from the other Gallic tribes and regional groupings. In this context Gallia has to be understood as a geographical term covering the area between the Rhine and the Pyrenees. The division implied by the term "Germani cisrhenani", between the Germans settling in Gaul and the Celtic Galli, can be traced archaeologically through the decreasing influence of the late Celtic oppida civilisation, as one moves north through the area.

The hill country of the Eifel was already home to an indigenous variation of Late Latène culture, which formed both an amalgam and a bridge between the Celtic and Germanic worlds. But its cultural influence, and especially its settlement forms, extended well into the Loess belt (Lößbördengebiet) to the north. Where exactly and how sharply the ethnic divide between Celts and Germans can de drawn, remains a problem, especially in view of the diverging criteria employed by Graeco-Roman ethnography on the one hand and the, often difficult, interpretation of archaeological remains on the other.

Moreover, the historical sources attest a population change in southern Lower Germany, during the mid to late 1st century BC, but this has so far remained barely detectable amongst the archaeological remains.

The people affected include the Eburones, one of the most powerful tribes of the "Germani cisrhenani". Their political power was destroyed by Julius Ceasar, following a series of incursions (De bello Gallico VI 35-36; VIII 24,4-25), although the literary sources do not support the idea of a large-scale genocide in this context, as has often been suggested in modern scholars. The aftermath of the Gallic Wars here still left a power vacuum in southern Lower Germany, however, which was only filled by the settlement of the Ubii. They were originally a German group who settled on the right bank of the Rhine between the Sieg and Lahn. The tribe was described as friendly to Rome and may have been heavily influenced by Celtic culture, and its planned and apparently voluntary, resettlement probably occurred during the first or second governorship of M.Agrippa: i.e. c. 38 or 20/19BC (Strabo, Geographica IV 3,4; Tacitus, Germania 28,5). The administrative centre of the new civitas Ubiorum was Cologne, albeit this was only laid out as a planned Roman town around the turn of the millennium.

Very different conditions guided the settlement of 40,000 Sugambri from the area between the Lippe and Sieg on the right bank of the Rhine, into the area around Xanten (Sueton, Augustus 21,1; Tiberius 9,2). Dated to 8BC, this action formed the final phase of the Germanic Wars of Drusus (12-9BC) and served to bring a principle enemy of Rome under permanent control by resettlement within the empire. These Germans continued to be identifiable during later Roman provincial history under their new name, the "Cugerni". In addition to these historically important peoples, classical authors name a series of other tribes and septs that settled in southern Lower Germany and who can be classified as predominately Celtic or Germanic in nature on the basis of the literary sources or their names.

Pre-Roman settlements

The pre-Roman tribes which Graeco-Roman literature places in the southern part of the later province of Germania Inferior, cannot yet be identified in the archaeological record. This is partially due to the nature of the archaeological remains because, apart from a uniform style of handmade pottery, there are few small finds, such as brooches, belts and jewellery, which would allow the identification of regional groups. Moreover, the few identifiable and dateable pieces that are recovered are often imports from the Latène area further south or, more rarely, from the Germans on the opposite side of the Rhine. Even graves and settlements do not offer sufficient evidence to permit further differentiation.

Until the first half of the 1st century BC (Latène D1) the settlement pattern in southern Germania Inferior was characterised by both open settlements and sites defended by banks and ditches. It is unclear in how far the latter served as central places, but it is striking that the finds from the defended sites show more frequent links with the Celtic groups in the southern hill zone (suedlicher Mittelgebirgsraum) than do the open settlements. A similar link is apparent through the arrangement of buildings within the open sites, where the characteristic forms are farm compounds made up of residential buildings and barns/stables built on 4 or 9 posts and with several of these farms together forming a larger, village-style settlement.

The most memorable examples are the defended sites of Bonn-Bad Godesberg-Muffendorf (Stadt Bonn/NRW) and Niederzier-Hambach 382 (KR. Düren/NRW), along with the open sites of Eschweiler-Lohn and Eschweiler-Laurenzberg (Kr.Aachen/NRW). However, although it seems that a comparable Latène C- settlement in Jüchen-Hochneukirch (Umsiedlungsstandort Neuholz; Rhein-Kr. Neuss / NRW) may have continued into the second half of the 1st century BC (Latène D2), there is so far hardly a site that shows a longer lasting continuity into the Roman Imperial period.

The occurrences of post-Republican Roman finds in the settlements of Weeze-Ball and Weeze (Kr. Kleeve / NRW), which started in the Latène B/C and D respectively, are exceptional, and most late Latène settlements known to date were abandoned during the course of the Latène D1, i.e. on the eve of the Gallic Wars. No significant links can thus be demonstrated to Roman villas built on the same sites, as at Hambach 382 and 512 near Niederzier (Kr. Düren/NRW).

There is currently no satisfactory explanation for the lack of settlement in southern Lower Germany during the second half of the 1st century BC (Latène D2). The frequently cited decimation of the Eburones must be refuted as an explanation by the fact that most of the known Latène settlements ended before the Gallic War. Archaeologically, on the other hand, the resettlement of the Ubii, remains equally untraceable in the countryside.

Continuation of pre-Roman building traditions under the Roman administration

From the 1st century AD onwards, as a result of new demands and influences on its farming settlements, the study area increasingly produced buildings which, though following the traditional post-built tradition, were larger and had outer walls constructed with multiple posts. These may have been a new introduction or just a development from an earlier building type, and further research is needed to clarify the extent to which this might represent northern Gaulish influence, as has occasionally been claimed. At the same time as the new building type appears, we also see a change in the structure of settlements. In contrast to the village-style clusters of farm compounds that characterised the late Iron Age, these new sites show close affinities to the smaller villae rusticae, with a multi-post main building found inside a probably rectangular enclosure, often alongside traditional 4 or 9-post structures. Over the last few years, such villas have often been found in the opencast mining area of (Rheinisches Braunkohlerevier), especially around Jüchen (Rhein-Kr. Neuss / NRW), and Pulheim-Brauweiler (Rhein-Erft-Kr. / NRW) where, as has already been mentioned, a farmyard of this type replaced a pre-existing traditional Iron Age settlement.

Here, as elsewhere, the new buildings did not occupy exactly the same sites as those of the earlier settlement, but immediately adjoined them and were so clearly aligned on the older sites, that continuity of settlement is beyond doubt. Pulheim-Brauweiler (Rhein-Erft-Kr. / NRW), which continued in use until the mid or later 3rd century, was never converted into stone, something it shared with a number of other sites.By contrast, at Jüchen-Hochneukirch (Umsiedlungsstandort Neuholz; Rhein-Kr. Neuss / NRW), a comparable Tiberian settlement preceded a larger villa rustica of the second half of the 1st century BC.

The latter was strongly differentiated from the earlier settlement by its stone main building, which took the form of a winged corridor villa with two stone ancillary structures. The other farm buildings, which were post-built, sometimes on post-pads, did not reflect a break with tradition, however, and the orientation, structure and chronology of both phases thus suggests a continuation of settlement and possibly even ownership.(Jüchen-Hochneukirch)

That said, there does not appear to be any connection with a Latène settlement found immediately to the east of the villa, despite its continued existence into Latène D2. Instead, the chronological gap between the end of this settlement and the foundation of the "protovilla" was filled by an additional site, further to the north, which demonstrated a clear break with local building traditions. The material of its associated Grubenhäuser, which date to the turn of the millennium, suggests the short-term presence of Germanic immigrants from the Barbaricum on the opposite bank of the Rhine.(Jüchen-Hochneukirch)

Germanic influence is also detectable elsewhere in the same period, and in the first half of the 1st century AD. The three-aisled longhouses with integrated stables at Jülich-Stetternich (Kr.Düren/NRW) and Aldenhoven-Langweiler (Kr.Aachen/NRW) demonstrate the short-lived existence in southern Lower Germany of house forms otherwise known only from the Dutch and German coastal areas. Until the final publication of the site, however, it must remain uncertain whether the remains of pits and slots adjoining the Grubenhäuser at Jüchen-Hochneukirch (Rhein-Kr. Neuss/NRW) are the remains of a similar structure.

Continued usage of such forms and even their further development (including gradual transformation into Roman style houses), has been demonstrated at some Dutch settlements (e.g. in Hoogeloon / Prov. Noord Brabant and Rijswijk / Prov. Zuid Holland), but it has not yet been documented in the present study area.

Whilst at first sight it might seem inviting to link these Germanic elements to the settlement measures mentioned for the Augustan period, this cannot be taken too far. For these forms do not tie in well with the hill-country to the east of the Rhine, or with southern Westfalia, which were the original settlement areas of the Ubii and Sugambri. Instead, they point more towards the Elbgermanic and coastal regions.

The development of the rural landscape in the early Roman period.

A distribution map of southern Lower Germany shows a loose scatter of rural settlements before the mid 1st century AD, even if sites with non-local Germanic elements and those demonstrating a local Iron Age tradition are taken into account. Moreover, on many sites, early occupation is only attested by small finds, as the associated buildings and other structures have often been damaged or completely erased by later intrusions and rebuilding. It might seem logical to expect a concentration of rural settlement around the legionary bases of Bonn, Neuss and Xanten, but none has yet been identified. A limited concentration of farms on the loess belt (Lößbördenzone) is noticeable and not surprising in view of the quality of the soils, but it should be realised that the area is unusually well studied, thanks to modern opencast lignite mining and heavy agricultural usage. It has thus created a disproportionately larger body of knowledge than the areas in the northern Eifel or the lower German plains, where forestry and cattle breeding now predominate.

By the mid 1st century, however, villa foundations can be identified in the eastern lower slopes of the Eifel (Voreifel) and in the Ahr valley. Apart from new foundations in the Loess belt, there was also now an increase in settlement in the Cologne area (Kölner Bucht) and, in future, it should be worth considering the extent to which this may reflect the town’s elevation in status to colonia.

The largest increase in rural settlement in southern Lower Germany dates to the second half of the 1st century AD, and is reflected in the foundations discussed above. Apart from a numerical increase in villa sites in the Cologne area (Kölner Bucht), there were numerous new foundations both on the loess belt and, more occasionally, in the Eifel. There are also other sites which most probably began in this period, but whose exact foundation date cannot be fixed more precisely than the 1st century as a whole. One particular positive influence was probably the legal conversion of Lower Germany from a military district into the province of Germania Inferior.

This wave of development continued into the second half of the 2nd century, although with diminished intensity. The main focus was once again on the loess belt, but there was an increasing progression into the area of the northern Eifel and its piedmont.

Where later stone buildings have not removed all trace, it is readily apparent that, in the first half of the 1^st-century, the rural settlements of southern Lower Germany were almost exclusively timber built. The scanty remains suggest that the buildings were predominately post-built structures and there are almost no indications of cill-beam construction. Even during the mid 1^st century, stone conversions, such as that at a villa in front of the Cologne city wall (Köln- Barbarossaplatz (Stadt Köln / NRW)), or new foundations in stone (e.g. Villa "am Silberberg" in Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler (Kr. Ahrweiler / RLP) remain the exception. Moreover, the term stone structure in such contexts almost always applies to the main residence. The ancillary buildings were only converted to stone, if at all, much later. It also remains difficult to judge what the original buildings would have looked like, because most of the archaeological remains amount to no more than the stone foundations or at most the bottommost layer of the upstanding walls. It is thus often difficult to say, whether we are faced with complete masonry walls or just timber-framed buildings on stone dwarf-walls. The latter technique is certainly still attested in the destruction debris of the Ahrweiler villa, mentioned above.

A marked increase in stone conversion and new stone villa buildings can be detected in the late 1st and 2nd century AD. The period also occasionally shows mud brick construction on a stone base, a technique that is otherwise rather rare in central Europe and examples can be found at sites such as Bedburg-Morken (Rhein-Erft-Kr. / NRW) and Hambach 264 near Niederzier-Steinstraß (Kr. Düren / NRW). Even so, timber built villas are still encountered at the end of the 1st and early in the 2nd century alongside this expansion in stone building techniques, for example at Hambach 512 in Niederzier (Kr. Kr. Düren / NRW) and a villa at Mönchengladbach-Rheydt (Stadt Mönchengladbach / NRW). Moreover cill-beam construction with and without point foundations was now found in the main buildings of Jüchen-Hackhausen (Umsiedlungsstandort Neuotzenrath/ Neuspenrath; Rhein-Kr. Neuss / NRW) and Köln-Braunsfeld (Stadt Köln / NRW).

It was probably only now that the timber villa at Pulheim-Brauweiler (Erftkreis/ NRW) replaced the earlier settlement beside it, with its small, late Iron Age tradition post-built structures. This then continued into the late 3rd century, providing proof that, as mentioned above, conversion to stone was not universal even in this later period. And more timber-built sites in a similar style were built in the late 1st century or even later in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, at Aldenhoven-Langweiler (Langweiler 9; Kr. Düren / NRW), Jüchen (Frimmersdorf 129; Rhein-Kr. Neuss / NRW), Jüchen-Garzweiler (Frimmersdorf 131; Rhein-Kr. Neuss / NRW) and Langerwehe-Jüngersdorf (Kr. Düren / NRW).

Plan and structure of the villae rusticae

With regard to their internal structure, two main villa types have been recognised in the northwest provinces:

With ‘Streuhof’ plans the main house and the ancillary buildings are distributed over the farmyard in such a way that no meaningful building pattern can be established. There is little evidence for axiality within the area, nor for a clear separation between the pars urbana and pars rustica (i.e. of the residential and farming areas). It remains disputed whether the varying degrees of orientation of the farm buildings towards the mostly rectangular enclosure, and the occasional positioning of buildings along the edge of the farmyard might suggest a third structural pattern (c.f. the discussion in Heimberg 2002/2003, 77ff.).

The Streuhof plan is present in nearly all of the villas so far excavated in southern Lower Germany. Examples of near completely, or largely excavated sites include:

- Jüchen-Hackhausen (Rhein-Kr. Neuss / NRW); Umsiedlungsstandort Neuotzenrath/Neuspenrath.

In comparison with other provinces these are only small to medium sized farms, but within the study area they represent the entire size spectrum.

Axial sites take their orientation usually from the pars urbana, focused on the main residence. In the ideal example, all lines of sight, the main axes of the buildings, enclosure walls and the main approach routes are focused onto the show piece main frontage, which usually produces a certain level of symmetry in the architecture of the pars rustica. Depending on the position of the pars urbana, i.e. whether it occupies the long or narrow side of the farmyard, long-axis and short-axis plans can be distinguished and there is usually a characteristic separation of the pars urbana and pars rustica with walls and blocking buildings.

Axial villas that fulfil all these criteria are so far unknown in southern Lower Germany. There are axial tendencies in some Streuhof villas, which result in the positioning of buildings along the enclosure wall but, otherwise, only the villa of Bla nkenheim-Hülchrath (Kr. Euskirchen / NRW), in the Eifel, at the province’s southern border can be identified as an axial villa. With an enclosed area of just 2.8-2.9ha this is much smaller than other sites of this type, however, which can occupy between 5.5 and 16ha in southern Upper Germany. Likewise, the division between the farmyard and the residence is only partial. For, if terracing walls for the hillside are not to be re-interpreted as dividing walls, the main residence does not lie in a strictly separate area, but is, in effect, itself the dividing element between the pars rustica and an open yard area which may have served as a garden or park. A similar separating function can also be found for some of the Streuhof site residences, such as Köln-Müngersdorf (Stadt Köln / NRW).

While really palatial villas and fully axial villas are absent from southern Lower Germany, the surviving evidence does not suggest homogeneity in composition and size. The majority of largely or completely excavated villas are around 3 ha in area, which must be classified as small in comparison with other regions. Yet even Jüchen-Hackhausen (Umsiedlungsstandort Neuotzenrath/Neuspenrath; Rhein-Kr. Neuss / NRW), which at 0.36 ha is the smallest site so far known in the study area, contains a main residence (of cill-beam construction on point foundations), an annex on stone foundations, ancillary buildings (one with stone foundations) and at least four timber structures. One of these buildings contained an oven with ash pit, surrounded by four deep foundation pits, and they probably served economic rather than residential functions. Most such small sites were probably family owned and run.

But even very small farms, such as Hambach 403 in Niederzier (Kr. Düren / NRW), with an area of 0.75ha, occasionally had ancillary buildings which are marked out as residential by their find assemblage and architectural form. First and foremost these allow us to suggest the presence of agricultural labourers, workers and dependent families in addition to the family of the farm’s owner or tenant. Definitive proof for this usage is usually hard to provide, but this type of bothy or labourer’s cottage can be found at several villas in southern Germania Inferior.

The type does, though, seem to be limited to one, or at most two occurrences per villa, which means that even medium sized to large villas (such as Blankenheim-Hülchrath (Kr. Euskirchen / NRW) at 2.8-2.9ha, Rheinbach-Flerzheim (Rhein-Sieg-Kr. / NRW) at, at least 2.7 ha, or Köln-Müngersdorf (Stadt Köln / NRW) with over 4ha) are not likely to have housed more than 50-75 permanent residents. For the most part the largest enclosed area for farms in this part of the province is just over 5 ha, which is only reached by a very few villas, such as Dormagen-Nievenheim (Rhein-Kr. Neuss / NRW) and Hambach 132 in Elzdorf- Neu-Etzweiler (Rhein-Erft-Kr. / NRW).

Very little is known about the amount of land these villas farmed and it is important to consider the possible sources of income of a given farm, as well as the question of soil quality; possible administrative demands (e.g. the question of limitatio); pre-Roman and Roman ownership issues and administrative habits. Most estimates are based on the local topography, the results from excavations and surveys, and the Limitatio-models from other parts of the empire, such as North Africa, and only rarely are the conditions for these reconstructions as good as in the areas excavated in the Rheinisches Braunkohlerevier. As a study of the early Roman landscape in the Hambacher Forest (Kr. Düren/NRW) shows, however, farms of differing sizes could lie as little as 350 - 800m apart and if the needs of fallow, surviving woodland and the Roman topography are considered, then a homogenous distribution of farms would allow for about 50ha of land per villa. It is clearly possible that smaller farms, such as Hambach 60 and 403, had rather less land, whilst large villas such Hambach 512 may have cultivated rather more but, in the end, it is impossible to be definitive about such issues. Likewise, the question of possible dependencies between smaller sites and the owners or managers of larger neighbouring villas is also impossible to settle.

Further considerations, based on survey results, suggest similarly sized plots in other parts of southern Lower Germany, but with increasing distances between sites in some areas, such as the hill country, much larger farm sizes become likely. The estimates for the Rhein-Erft-Kreis areas would thus be 50-100ha, along the Ahr valley 200-300ha and for the area around Cologne (Kölner Bucht) occasionally as high as 250-600ha.

Residences, bath buildings and their decoration

Most research on the villas of the north-western provinces has usually been lavished on the farm’s main house, i.e. the residence of the villa owner or tenant and the bath buildings often linked to it. Because of their more substantial construction and the resulting larger debris field, these are easier to locate during surveys than the usually lighter-built ancillary buildings. Naturally this is particularly relevant to the later stone periods. Any timber predecessors then tend to be found during nearby excavations and their less well preserved remains mean that much less is known about their architecture. (Würselen-Broichweiden)

Area excavations of purely timber villas in the lignite areas have shown that their main houses were usually rectangular post-built structures with post-pits or post pads, although post-in-trench construction of the outer walls is occasionally seen. There are sometimes additional internal supports along the central axis and, in some cases, two posts found in front of the outer wall might indicate an entrance with porch. Little is known about their interior divisions, apart from a number of cellars and the occasional posthole, but it is possible that they were partitioned using light walls without foundations, which have left few archaeological traces.

The possible relationships between these houses and the local or northern Gallic, Iron Age post-building traditions were discussed earlier. The sorts of ground plan described are, however, not always restricted to the main residence, e.g. Bedburg-Garsdorf (Rhein-Erft-Kr. / NRW), which can make this difficult to identify securely unless the entire enclosed area is excavated.

No examples are known amongst the villas of southern Lower Germany where the ground plan of a stone main residence exactly parallels its timber predecessor, although there are a few instances where the design of the timber phase is thought to have influenced parts of the later stone building. Even here, however, the most that is generally seen is that annex that occasionally protrudes from timber house corners is matched by a winged corridor façade in the later stone phase.

That said, it seems possible that these corner rooms may often have been later additions to the timber houses, for although some were post-built, such as the example at Frimmersdorf 131 in Jüchen-Garzweiler (Rhein-Kr. Neuss / NRW), others had stone foundations, as at Jüchen-Hackhausen (Umsiedlungsstandort Neuotzenrath/ Neuspenrath; Rhein-Kr. Neuss / NRW), Hambach 516 in Niederzier (Kr. Düren / NRW) and Hambach 224 in Niederzier-Steinstraß-Lich (Kr. Düren / NRW).

As with the timber examples, the stone villa houses of southern Lower Germany usually had comparatively simple ground plans, with individual designs often deviating by little more than a few variations in the room arrangements. Moreover, with only the occasional exception, these basic plans remained uncomplicated by later changes and extensions. Most fall into three basic types: ‘basilical’, ‘Zentralhof’ and ‘portico’/‘corridor’ villas, with the first two occasionally providing the basis for a later conversion to the third.

Basilical villas are characterised by a core that follows a three-aisled plan. They are hard to find in southern Lower Germany, but may possibly include the first phase of the main building of Hambach 56 in Niederzier-Hambach (Kr. Düren / NRW) and the residence of Hambach 252 in Niederzier-Oberzier (Kr. Düren / NRW).

The ‘Zentralhof’ villa is a courtyard type, which has its different rooms arranged around a central courtyard. In contrast to British courtyard villas, however, the houses tend to be small to moderately sized. These too are rare in the study area, but the main house at Alsdorf-Höngen (Kr. Aachen/NRW) and possibly the first stone phase of the main building at Eschweiler-Laurenzberg-Lürken (Kr. Aachen / NRW) may belong to this group.

The dominant building form in southern Lower Germany was the so-called ‘portico-villa’ or ‘corridor-villa’, whose interior was usually accessed by way of a portico in front of the main façade. Detailed typologies, which will not be set out here, differentiate whether the rooms behind the portico were arranged as a row or around a central hall (siehe z.B. Heimberg 2002/2003, 91ff.), and there is a long-standing debate as to whether this central room was really a hall rather than an open internal courtyard. Nevertheless, even if we ignore these interior divisions, which can be difficult to classify, several variants can be differentiated on the basis of the porticoed façade alone.

In its most simple form, the main façade is fronted by a full-length portico. This variant is comparatively rare in the study area, but it can be found in fairly small buildings, such as the main house at Hambach 74 in Niederzier (Kr. Düren / NRW) and at larger residences, such as the second phases of the villas at Blankenheim-Hülchrath (Kr. Euskirchen / NRW) and "am Silberberg" in Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler (Kr. Ahrweiler / NRW). At Blankenheim this apparently simpler design seems to have replaced an earlier portico with lateral protrusions.

Winged corridor villas were numerically the most common type in southern Germania Inferior. The houses had protruding rooms at the two front corners, which flanked the portico and, although there are examples with a single protruding room, these are much rarer. The rooms did not necessarily have protruding ground plans, but could project from a higher level. Their presence does not seem to be closely related to building size. Indeed porticoed façades with one or two corner-rooms can be found in houses with frontages of less than 20m, for example at Hambach 69 in Niederzier (Kr. Düren / NRW), or in the original design of the main house at Hambach 512 in Niederzier (Kr. Düren / NRW).

Typical examples of small and medium sized structures (with frontages of <50m) have also been also found at the following sites:

This type of façade has also been found in the few large and very large residences in the study area, e.g. buildings with lengths of c. 50m, such as Köln-Müngersdorf (Stadt Köln / NRW) and Schuld (Kr. Ahrweiler / RLP), or those of 90, c. 95 and over 100m, at Euskirchen-Kreuzweingarten (Kr. Euskirchen / NRW), Aldenhoven-Schleiden (Kr. Düren (NRW) and possibly Bedburg-Morken (Rhein-Erft-Kr. / NRW).

In some examples, with more markedly protruding corner-rooms, the portico can turn and follow the sides of the rooms to produce a U-shaped portico, and this is a common variant in the study area. Its more pronounced form is found mostly in medium sized and larger residences, as in the first phase of the villa of Blankenheim-Hülchrath (Kr. Euskirchen/NRW), in the later stone period of the villa at Eschweiler-Laurenzberg-Lürken (Kr. Aachen / NRW) and at Weilerswist-Klein Vernich (Kr. Euskirchen / NRW).

In the three cases above, the sequence of rooms at the corners protrudes so far from the building that it is appropriate to refer to short wings, and a similar pattern seems likely at the massive villa of Aldenhoven-Schleiden (Kr. Düren (NRW), whose straight portico is currently known only from aerial photographs. As yet, however, no large-scale wings, of the kind found in the palatial villas of southern Upper Germany, have been identified in southern Lower Germany. Only the villa of Euskirchen-Kreuzweingarten (Kr. Euskirchen / NRW), where ranges of rooms are grouped around two large internal, rearward courtyards, shows a roughly comparable design. Here, however, the comparison is also reflected in the decoration of the rooms at the southern end of the larger courtyard, whose mosaics and ornamental fountains suggest the presence of decorative garden architecture comparable to that known from some of the palatial villas in Helvetian territory (Switzerland).

The decoration of main buildings in southern Lower Germany seems otherwise to have been largely mediocre. The wall paintings are dominated by monochrome examples, with multicoloured or ornamental patterns comparatively rare. There are, however, floral and figurative designs, or candelabra decorations, some of which are of quite high quality, with examples known from at least "am Silberberg" in Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler (Kr. Ahrweiler / RLP), Bedburg-Morken (Rhein-Erft-Kr. / NRW), Weisweiler 112 in Jülich-Kirchberg (Kr. Düren / NRW), Köln-Müngersdorf (Stadt Köln / NRW) and Kreuzau-Üdingen (Kr. Düren / NRW). These stand side-by-side with simpler field decorations or imitations of marble, which (apart from the places already mentioned) are also known from Bornheim-Botzdorf (Rhein-Sieg-Kr. / NRW), Dormagen-Nievenheim (Rhein-Kr. Neuss / NRW), Euskirchen-Kreuzweingarten (Kr. Euskirchen / NRW), St. Pantaleon in Köln (Stadt Köln / NRW) and Köln-Braunsfeld (Stadt Köln / NRW).

Interestingly, real marble veneers are more common than painted imitations. Aside from the fact that they survive more easily, this may be due to the fact that they were also used away from the residential quarters, in the baths, however else these may have been decorated. As a result, they can be found in residences of the higher middle range and upwards, including the main building of Hambach 56 in Niederzier-Hambach (Kr. Düren / NRW), which is just 36m long. The marbles are dominated by relatively local products from the Rheinische Mittelgebirgszone, Aachen and, as in the example just given, from Belgium. Nevertheless, expensive Mediterranean imports are also known, from villas such as "am Silberberg" in Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler (Kr. Ahrweiler / RLP), "am Pantaleonsberg" in Köln (Stadt Köln / NRW), "am Bruch" in Köln-Wörringen (Stadt Köln / NRW) and Vettweiss-Froitzheim (Kr. Düren / NRW).

There are a few examples adorned with reliefs, such as the lengths of egg-and-dart decoration from Dormagen-Nievenheim (Rhein-Kr. Neuss / NRW), or the depiction of a cantharos and floral designs from Euskirchen-Kreuzweingarten (Kr. Euskirchen / NRW). Otherwise, the multi-coloured fragments found at Aldenhoven-Schleiden (Kr. Düren / NRW), "am Bruch" in Köln-Wörringen (Stadt Köln / NRW) and Vettweiss-Froitzheim (Kr. Düren / NRW) suggest patterns with contrasting areas of differently coloured stone or even wall intarsia. A border that used this technique to depict flowers in Mediterranean stones has been reconstructed from older field walking finds from the area of a villa at Jüchen (Rhein-Kr. Neuss / NRW).

The latter site also produced evidence for mosaics, which otherwise seem to have played almost no part in the interior decor of southern Lower German villas. In fairness, it is difficult to make an accurate assessment of their role, given their poor preservation, but only 12 of the 168 villas looked at during the preparation of this study showed any trace of such floors. The only example that has been preserved, at least as larger fragments, is a black-and-white pelta-pattern of the early 3rd century, found in the 19th century at the large villa of Euskirchen-Kreuzweingarten (Kr. Euskirchen / NRW) along with a further example with figural patterns, which is no longer extant.

At other sites, the evidence usually consists of varying numbers of mosaic tesserae. These have been found at larger villas, such as Aldenhoven-Schleiden (Kr. Düren / NRW), Köln-Müngersdorf (Stadt Köln / NRW), Schuld (Kr. Ahrweiler / RLP) etc and at two smaller sites: Hambach 59 and 425 in Niederzier-Steinstraß bzw. Niederzier (Kr. Düren / NRW).

If all of the indicators are drawn together then a slight concentration of higher quality interior decoration emerges in the Kölner Bucht (the area around Cologne), and the Voreifel and Eifel. By contrast, richer farms are exceptions on the loess belt between Cologne and Aachen. This may reflect the economically stronger location of the former regions, which had direct links to the military, to the Eifel ore deposits, and to the urban centres along the Rhine, especially the provincial capital at Cologne.

Bathing facilities are often regarded as standard for Roman villas: either integrated into the main building, or as freestanding bathhouses. In the present study area, fully freestanding bath blocks are only known, so far, at the villas of "Auf dem Süsterfeld" in Aachen-Laurensberg (Stadt Aachen / NRW) and Übach-Palenberg (Kr. Heinsberg / NRW).

By contrast, the baths of the villas "am Silberberg" in Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler (Kr. Ahrweiler / RLP) and Hambach 206 in Niederzier (Kr. Düren / NRW), although strictly speaking separate buildings, were linked to the main residence via a portico.

In the majority of cases the baths were either part of the main building or were later annexes. Depending on their preservation, however, it is not always possible to decide whether some features were the remains of heated bathing rooms or hypocausted living quarters. As a result, it cannot be ruled out that the hypocausted and tubulated (3.45 m x 2.50 m) room (i.e. a room with both floor and wall heating) in the comparatively small main building (28 x 17m) at Hambach 66 in Niederzier-Hambach (Kr. Düren / NRW) might actually have been a cella caldaria (hot bath).

Such considerations are further exacerbated by the fact that hypocausts demanded a considerable outlay in building costs, care and maintenance, and were thus usually limited to the area of the baths in smaller villas, if they were present at all. Baths are also the place where other indicators of a luxurious interior decoration are most likely to be found, such as polished stone veneers and/or wall paintings, and they are the most likely setting for the use of the mosaic tesserae found in the two smaller villas mentioned above.

As one might expect, the size of the baths varied considerably and ranged from small, two to three roomed installations, limited to a cold and hot bath, to large, impressive, multi-roomed complexes, with cold, tepid and hot baths and a sweating room (sudatorium/laconicum). Smaller examples have already been mentioned and there are others at Hambach 127 in Elsdorf-Etzweiler (Rhein-Erft-Kr. / NRW), Hambach 132 in Elsdorf-Neu-Etzweiler (Rhein-Erft-Kr. / NRW), Hambach 56 in Niederzier-Hambach (Kr. Düren / NRW) and Köln-Braunsfeld (Stadt Köln / NRW). Larger blocks are known from the residences at "am Silberberg" in Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler (Kr. Ahrweiler / RLP), Eschweiler-Laurenzberg-Lürken (Kr. Aachen / NRW) and Euskirchen-Kreuzweingarten (Kr. Euskirchen / NRW). Compared to the huge dimensions of the residence, the bath block at the villa of Bedburg-Morken (Rhein-Erft-Kr. / NRW) seems rather humble, and it is possible that a second set existed. Indeed, the very fragmentary archaeological documentation of this no longer extant site allows much room for such speculation.

The water supply to the villas and their baths could be secured through aqueducts, deep wells or, in a few cases, such as Hambach 512 in Niederzier (Kr. Düren / NRW) and Hambach 303 in Titz-Höllen (Kr. Düren / NRW), by the provision of small cisterns. A larger cistern with a settling tank and several inflow pipes has been found at the villa of Frechen-Königsdorf/Neufreimersdorf (Rhein-Erft-Kr. / NRW) and probably dates to the 4th century. Aqueducts are known from a number of sites and could take the form of masonry, stone or brick walled conduits, or clay, timber or (rarely) lead pipes. A combination of different piping systems was discovered at Jülich-Kirchberg (Kr. Düren / NRW), where a timber pipeline carried water from the well head to a settling tank and then, after some distance, turned into a mortared, U-shaped canal covered with slates and roof tiles. Other systems include clay pipes from the villa of Alsdorf-Höngen (Kr. Aachen / NRW), and lead pipe fragments along with copper alloy stop-cocks from Elsdorf-Oberembt (Rhein-Erft-Kr. / NRW) and Mönchengladbach-Rheydt (Stadt Mönchengladbach / NRW).

Deep wells were a more common means of securing water in southern Lower Germany. They were encountered at at least 58 of the 168 villas studied for this essay, a remarkably high proportion, especially if we take into account the fact that most villas are only known from very small sondages. A study of the small, but particularly well researched Rheinisches Braunkohlerevier region shows that, in the loess belt at least, almost all villas had deep wells. Their frequency varies from one to ten shafts per site. The latter number was encountered at the villa of Köln-Widdersdorf (Stadt Köln / NRW), which was occupied from the 1st to the late 4th/early 5th century. A more usual figure, however, would be from 2 to 7 wells, concentrated in the area in front of the enclosed farmyards and, naturally, not all in use at the same time.

The most common construction type were rectangular, timber-lined wells, followed by stone linings sitting on a timber box or a ring of timber beams, as at Geilenkirchen-Hommerschen (Kr. Heinsberg / NRW). At a settlement in Euskirchen (Kr. Euskirchen / NRW) a hollowed out tree trunk served as a well lining and, depending on their construction, filled-in wells tend to show up during excavations as circular, square, or sometimes octagonal areas within a construction pit.

Ponds have been found inside a number of Lower German farmyards and would have served as secondary water sources, only suitable for industrial purposes, for watering animals and as reservoirs in case of fire. As a result, there are doubts as to whether they should be considered as parts of the villas’ normal water supply. Examples include Aldenhoven-Pattern (Kr. Düren / NRW), Dormagen-Nievenheim (Rhein-Kr. Neuss / NRW), Euskirchen (Kr. Euskirchen / NRW), Jüchen-Hochneukirch (Umsiedlungsstandort Neuholz; Rhein-Kr. Neuss / NRW), Köln-Müngersdorf and Köln-Widdersdorf (Stadt Köln / NRW), Hambach 69 & 403 in Niederzier (Kr. Düren / NRW), Hambach 382 in Niederzier-Hambach (Kr. Düren / NRW), Hambach 59 in Niederzier-Steinstraß (Kr. Düren / NRW) and Pulheim-Brauweiler (Rhein-Erft-Kr. / NRW). They were either natural depressions (dew ponds) or, (probably) more commonly, clay pits from the construction of the farms’ timber-framed structures that later filled with water.

Ancillary buildings and the farms’ economic basis

When compared to the residences and bath buildings, our understanding of the ancillary villa buildings is more scanty. The main reason for this is the lighter construction of many such buildings, which leaves fewer remains to be found by field walkers and surveyors on the surface. Generally speaking their construction involved cill-beams and posts (with or without post pads), which together account for about a quarter of the known corpus of structures (cf Heimberg 2002/2003, 111). There are also buildings on stone foundations, but these were probably dominated by timber-framed structures on stone dwarf walls. Thanks, in particular, to the area excavations in the Rheinisches Braunkohlenrevier, where it has been possible to excavate several villas completely, we now have a fairly good understanding of the number of ancillary structures each villa might have. This varies, within the study area, between a minimum of three to four buildings, as at Hambach 403 in Niederzier (Kr. Düren / NRW), which had an enclosed area of 0.76ha, and the 11 buildings found in the more than 4 ha compound of Köln-Müngersdorf (Stadt Köln / NRW). The number of structures was not just dependent on the size of the enclosure, however, as is documented by the fact that the 0.36 ha villa enclosure at Jüchen-Hackhausen (Umsiedlungsstandort Neuotzenrath/ Neuspenrath; Rhein-Kr. Neuss / NRW) contained at least five proven farm buildings. When considering individual sites we must always take into account that not all of the buildings were necessarily contemporary and, if the structures do not overlap, it is often impossible to make such chronological distinctions on the basis of the published accounts. Likewise, determining the individual function of each building can often be problematic, especially as we are often denied its associated occupation horizons. However, it seems safe to assume the presence of residential buildings, workshops, stables, barns and granaries, as well as carriage houses and tool sheds.


"Bothy" (Bau I) of the villa rustica of Köln-Müngersdorf	Villa Hambach 403 in Niederzier

Villa rustica Hambach 66 in Niederzier-Hambach	Villa rustica at Rheinbach-Flerzheim

Secondary residential buildings, such as bothies, show occasional architectural influence from the main residence. We thus see buildings with fronting porticoes, for example at Köln-Müngersdorf (Stadt Köln / NRW), winged corridor houses, or at least porticoed houses with laterally protruding annexes, e.g. Hambach 127 in Elsdorf-Etzweiler (Rhein-Erft-Kr. / NRW), Hambach 403 & 66 in Niederzier bzw. Niederzier-Hambach (Kr. Düren / NRW) and Rheinbach-Flerzheim (Rhein-Sieg-Kr. / NRW). Buildings D and E at the villa of Blankenheim-Hülchrath (Kr. Euskirchen / NRW) contained unusually high levels of internal elaboration, including, i.a., hypocausted rooms, a cellar and even a simple set of baths with a latrine. It is possible that some of these were late Roman alterations, as is suggested by a channel hypocaust, and they seem to have been inserted to convert workshops, which included an iron smelting furnace, into living quarters.

The remaining ancillary structures are more difficult to identify from their architecture. Many of the timber examples continued the traditional Iron Age types, such as the 4 and 9 post buildings, which are usually interpreted as stables or raised store building. They are particularly common at purely timber-built villas, such as Frimmersdorf 129 in Jüchen (Rhein-Kr. Neuss / NRW) and the Unsiedlungsstandort Neuholz in Jüchen-Hochneukirch (Rhein-Kr. Neuss / NRW), but they do occasionally occur within (or at least in the vicinity of) stone-built villas, with 4 posters known at Köln-Müngersdorf (Stadt Köln / NRW) and Hambach 425 in Niederzier (Kr. Düren / NRW).

It is more common, however, for stone built villas, e.g. Hambach 512 & 59 in Niederzier bzw. Niederzier-Steinstraß (Kr. Düren / NRW) to have long, rectangular, timber farm buildings.

With numerous post-holes along the outer walls and no sign of internal divisions, apart (possibly) from a single line of posts, these tend to resemble the known ground plans of timber main villa buildings. They probably formed the model for similarly sized buildings with stone foundations, which occur frequently on the villa sites of southern Germania Inferior, and these one or two roomed houses sometimes have buttress-like reinforcements on both the outer and inner faces of their walls.

Rows of supports have been found in some examples, such as ancillary building 1 in Eschweiler-Laurenzberg-Lürken (Kr. Aachen / NRW), Hambach 127 in Elsdorf-Etzweiler; Rhein-Erft-Kr. (NRW) and Weisweiler 112 in Jülich-Kirchberg (Kr. Düren / NRW). These would suggest raised floors and thus that at least some of these buildings were granaries. Moreover, the preservation of such floors is not the sole indicator for the presence of a granary, as is illustrated by Building VI at Köln-Müngersdorf (Stadt Köln / NRW), where a tower granary was later inserted into the building (albeit a contemporary change in usage cannot be ruled out). A similar interpretation could also be put on the multi-roomed stone building at Hambach 512 in Niederzier (Kr. Düren / NRW), which was preceded by a timber granary with four rows of posts. Supports found in some of the rooms of otherwise differently designed ancillary buildings, e.g. Hambach 132 in Elsdorf-Neu-Etzweiler (Rhein-Erft-Kr. / NRW) and Köln-Müngersdorf (Stadt Köln / NRW), also suggest that a granary could sometimes occupy just part of a particular building.

The specific uses of other facilities remains speculative. There are some complex structures with multiple hearths, e.g. Haus 1 in Dormagen-Nievenheim (Rhein-Kr. Neuss / NRW), which could be interpreted as a combination of stores, workshops and residential areas, similar to those documented in some well preserved sites in southern Upper Germany. Building 4 with its storage areas at Hambach 132 in Elsdorf-Neu-Etzweiler (Rhein-Erft-Kr. / NRW) produced finds which include iron tools, a copper-alloy workpiece and a crucible, which might suggest a copper-alloy workshop.
The interpretation of a number of features remains unclear. These have ground plans marked by post-built construction combined with additional rooms which show partial wall foundations. Such features have been found, i.a. at Hambach 69 in Niederzier (Kr. Düren / NRW), and have been variously reconstructed as workshops with partially open walls, or enclosed cattle pens with an additional, more substantial shelter/stable. It is possible that the still unpublished small finds, may eventually offer further clues. In all, the villas of southern Lower Germany offer evidence for very different activities. Apart from the granaries already discussed, the agricultural aspects are documented by the presence of corn dryers and mills. The former have been found i.a. at Aachen-Laurensberg (Stadt Aachen / NRW), Bornheim-Botzdorf (Rhein-Sieg-Kr. / NRW), Hambach 425 in Niederzier (Kr. Düren / NRW) and Rheinbach-Flerzheim (Rhein-Sieg-Kr. / NRW). Likewise, numerous sites have produced millstones of varying sizes, and Weisweiler 356 in Aldenhoven-Pattern (Kr. Düren / NRW) also had evidence for a water mill.

The most suggestive evidence at the latter, apart from part of a hopper and axle, came from a large, 500 piece, metal hoard found in two pits on the site. This contained various farming tools and equipment, such as pitch forks, scythes, plough shares, and carriage fittings, and formed part of the agricultural inventory we could predict for any farm. Its range is impressively illustrated by a set of miniatures found in a tomb in Cologne-Rodenkirchen(Stadt Köln / NRW).

Two anvils and iron pigs from the same hoard were probably connected with the maintenance and local production of this inventory. Apart from the predictable evidence for such smithing activity, and for occasional copper-alloy smelting, there is also occasional evidence for iron smelting at villa sites. If one disregards the late Roman furnaces which were sometimes built into villa ruins, for example at Jüchen-Hochneukirch (Umsiedlungsstandort Neuholz; Rhein-Kr. Neuss / NRW), Köln-Widdersdorf (Stadt Köln / NRW), Hambach 66 in Niederzier-Hambach (Kr. Düren / NRW) Weisweiler 98/137 in Inden (Kr. Düren) and Rheinbach-Flerzheim (Rhein-Sieg-Kr. / NRW), there are still fairly early Roman and high Roman instances known from Weisweiler 93/130 in Aldenhoven (Kr. Düren / NRW) and the first phase of Building D at Blankenheim-Hülchrath (Kr. Euskirchen / NRW), which, as we have seen, was later converted for residential purposes.

Bell pits associated with iron mining (for limonite and haematite) are known from the villas of Nideggen-Wollersheim (Kr. Düren / NRW) and, perhaps, Erkelenz-Commerden (Kr. Heinsberg / NRW). Current thinking would not suggest that ore mining and processing played a role in the early and High Roman villas of the loess belt, except as a secondary source of income, but it is usually cited as the primary reason for the elevated levels of wealth displayed by farms in the Voreifel and northern Eifel. Apart from finds from the farmyards themselves, this argument is based also on their position, in or close to known ore extraction areas. Thus, large-scale ore mining has been proved for the area around Blankenheim (Kr. Euskirchen / NRW) and in Kreis Ahrweiler (RLP), whilst quarries can be associated with the villa of Blankenheim-Hülchrath (Kr. Euskirchen / NRW), and probably those of Kesseling-Staffel (Kr. Ahrweiler / RLP) and Euskirchen-Kreuzweingarten (Kr. Euskirchen / NRW). In the last case the exploitation and the proven processing of dolomite in the area of Kreuzweingarten suggests, that the villa may have derived wealth from an associated limekiln.

Compared to such sources of income, pottery production, in the form of the one to two kilns found i.a. in Bornheim-Botzdorf (Rhein-Sieg-Kr. / NRW) and Euskirchen-Euenheim (Kr. Euskirchen / NRW), is more likely to have done little more than cover on-site demand or offer a small secondary income from the local market. The only possible exception is the large-scale pottery workshop at Vettweiß-Soller (Rhein-Erft-Kr. / NRW), which had at least 12 excavated kilns. It remains debateable, however, whether the central complex of buildings found during old impromptu excavations, was actually part of a villa.

The output of two brick kilns found in the vicinity of Weisweiler 112 in Jülich-Kirchberg (Kr. Düren / NRW) must have been much lower in volume, and production centres of similar size to the pottery workshop mentioned have only been found at the villas of the Hambacher Forest. Glass working kilns have currently been identified at seven locations (Hambach 59, 75, 111, 127, 132, 382 and 500) but, as with some iron smelting sites, they appear to have taken over early and high Roman villa sites at times when they had probably become largely abandoned.

Sanctuaries

Buildings, whose architecture or finds assemblage would classify them as sanctuaries have only rarely been identified on villas in southern Lower Germany. The exceptions are a Gallo-Roman temple from the enclosure of the unpublished villa of Weilerswist-Klein Vernich (Kr. Euskirchen / NRW), and a building with a rectangular cella and surrounding timber portico (on pad-stones) which was found just 35m from the residence and bath of the possible villa of Bedburg-Harff (Rhein-Erft-Kr. / NRW).

There has been speculation, but no more, as to whether a small single roomed buildings in the southwest corner of the stone phase of Jüchen-Hochneukirch (Umsiedlungsstandort Neuholz; Rhein-Kr. Neuss / NRW), may have had a ritual use and the same is true of a four-sided walled enclosure at Blankenheim-Hülchrath (Kr. Euskirchen / NRW). There are also at least hints that sanctuaries may have existed in the immediate vicinity of other villas. For example, large column drums and Corinthian capitals were found in wells at Geilenkirchen-Hommerschen (Kr. Heinsberg / NRW) and a fragmentary alter to the Matrones is known from the area of Köln-Müngersdorf (Stadt Köln / NRW).
A more common ritual element is the occurrence of Jupiter columns near villas in the study area. Their distribution in lower Germany is concentrated almost exclusively in the southern part of the province, with a particular stress on the provincial capital, Cologne, and its hinterland. When catalogued, about a third of the 270 known monuments of this kind came from excavated or surveyed villas in the study area (cf Noelke 2005, 128ff.), although they are frequently only preserved as small fragments.

Well preserved examples of an enthroned Jupiter as the crowning sculpture have been found at Weisweiler 112 in Jülich-Kirchberg (Kr. Düren / NRW) and on

the unpublished settlements of Bornheim-Sechtem (Rhein-Sieg-Kr. / NRW) and Köln-Longerich (Stadt Köln / NRW). A preserved giant from the villa of Titz-Ameln (Kr. Düren / NRW) also documents a riding Jupiter and giant group, a type that is much rarer in Lower Germany. According to stylistic and epigraphic criteria, the Jupiter columns of the area do not predate the Hadrianic period and the majority seem to date to the second half of the 2nd century or the first half of the 3rd. After their demolition the column fragments were often reused as building material or deposited in abandoned wells. Examples of this practice can be found from the second half of the 3rd century to the mid 4^th, and are known i.a. from the villas of Weisweiler 112 in Jülich-Kirchberg (Kr. Düren / NRW), Köln-Vogelsang (Stadt Köln / NRW), Köln-Widdersdorf (Stadt Köln / NRW) and Titz-Ameln (Kr. Düren / NRW). Moreover, the fragments preserved in the well shafts provide additional evidence that a few villas had more than one Jupiter column.

Enclosures and subdivisions

It is a characteristic element of villas in the northwestern provinces that the farmyard was enclosed by a fence, hedge, ditch or even a wall. In southern Lower Germany, ditches were most common and outline more or less rectangular yards. Their popularity probably resulted from the fact that the building materials for

walls would have represented a considerable outlay in the areas north of the Mittelgebirgsraums hills, that only a few, mostly larger and richer villas would have been willing to incur. Nevertheless, some walled enclosures are known, for example at Eschweiler-Laurenzberg-Lürken (Kr. Aachen / NRW), Weisweiler 112 in Jülich-Kirchberg (Kr. Düren / NRW) and Köln-Müngersdorf (Stadt Köln / NRW). As one approaches the Eifel and stone becomes more readily available, a marked increase in walled villas can be recognized.

Examples include the sites on the Flur Turmrott in Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler (Kr. Ahrweiler / RLP), in the Tiefenbachtal bei Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler-Ramersbach (Kr. Ahrweiler / RLP), in Blankenheim-Hülchrath (Kr. Euskirchen / NRW) and Kesseling-Staffel (Kr. Ahrweiler / RLP). As for the other, more cost-efficient, alternatives: fences, palisades and hedges, their shallow and often hard to classify vestiges in the soil make them difficult to trace archaeologically. There are, though, sites with two enclosure slots, e.g. Bedburg-Garsdorf (Rhein-Erft-Kr. / NRW) and Dormagen-Nievenheim (Rhein-Kr. Neuss / NRW), where the smaller is often interpreted as a palisade or hedge-planting slot.

Other forms of enclosure include double lines of flat, rectangular pits, as found at Villa Hambach 425 in Niederzier (Kr. Düren / NRW) and the stone phase of Jüchen-Hochneukirch (Umsiedlungsstandort Neuholz; Rhein-Kr. Neuss / NRW), and at the latter, these were interpreted as the planting pits for a hedge. In other cases there are signs of fences or palisades, for example at Hambach 403 & 224 in Niederzier bzw. Niederzier-Steinstraß-Lich (Kr. Düren / NRW). These take the form of long series of post pits or, in the case of Köln-Widdersdorf (Stadt Köln / NRW), of beam-slots flanked by pits for supporting posts.

Hambach 59 in Niederzier-Steinstraß (Kr. Düren / NRW) appears to have used ditch, moat, and fence/palisade enclosures in turn and it seems to have been common for fences or hedges to replace a ditch dug when a sites was founded, but backfilled in later phases. Only rarely can this transition be shown to have taken place in the context of an enlargement of the farm buildings, although this was the case at Jüchen-Hochneukirch (Umsiedlungsstandort Neuholz; Rhein-Kr. Neuss / NRW) and Hambach 512 in Niederzier (Kr. Düren / NRW). The phenomenon was most common in the 2nd century and, as a result, it has been postulated that it marks a change from a foundation period, with a greater need for strong territorial markers, to a later time of more stable landholdings (e.g. Gaitzsch 1986, 403). The enclosures usually took the form of single compounds, and outer annexes are rare.

The ditched annex at Frimmersdorf 80 bzw. 86/176 in Bedburg-Königshoven (Rhein-Erft-Kr. / NRW) and perhaps the walled annexe at Köln-Müngersdorf (Stadt Köln / NRW) served as graveyards, but the large ditched annexes at Hambach 132 in Elsdorf-Neu-Etzweiler (Rhein-Erft-Kr. / NRW) and Hambach 303 in Titz-Höllen (Kr. Düren / NRW) housed the majority of the villas’ ancillary buildings. In one case, at least: the large villa of Hambach 132 with its late Roman glass workshop, it remains unclear which of the ditches that bisect the farmyard were open at any one time and, indeed, whether or not some may have been earlier field boundaries: superseded when the farm was expanded.

No impressive gatehouses have yet been identified at any of the villas of southern Lower Germany. Even internal farmyard subdivisions are rare, except for the sites with annexes, mentioned above, and the terracing walls at Blankenheim-Hülchrath (Kr. Euskirchen / NRW). That said, we might well expect lighter divisions, such as fencing or hedges, which would leave little in the archaeological record beyond the sort of nondescript postholes or small gullies found at Hambach 69 in Niederzier (Kr. Düren / NRW).

Pollen preserved in the sediments from wells allows some statements to be made concerning land use in the immediate vicinity, including open paths and squares, orchards, gardens and beds, for which some form of boundaries must be assumed. The appearance of the landscape around some of the villas whose pollen has been studied can be reconstructed quite accurately, especially Hambach 59 in Niederzier-Steinstraß (Kr. Düren / NRW) and the fields, pasture and coppices have all left their specific pollen traces in the sediments. Likewise, thanks to the area excavations in the Rheinisches Braunkohlenrevier, it is occasionally possible to trace the straight field boundaries, which run to some distance from the villa enclosures.

Information on the villa owners

In the case of Hambach 127 in Elsdorf-Etzweiler (Rhein-Erft-Kr. / NRW) a graffito: "PATERNII" was found on a jug base in the main building and might mean that it was owned by the family of an villa owner/tenant called PATERNIUS. A similar assumption can be made in Rheinbach-Flerzheim (Rhein-Sieg-Kr. / NRW), where a small cemetery with some richly furnished graves belonging to a villa, has produced a gravestone fragment with a name that has been restored as SECUN[DINII]. Assuming this reading is correct, and the excavator is right in claiming that the stone belonged to one of the richer graves, then this may have been the villa owned or rented by the Secundinius family.

Graves

Graves have been found at numerous villas in southern Lower Germany, usually in one or more groups of up to 40 graves, inside or close to the villa enclosure, or at least aligned on it. Occasionally, for example at Frechen-Königsdorf/Neufreimersdorf (Rhein-Erft-Kr. / NRW), Hambach 503 in Jülich-Stetternich (Kr. Düren / NRW) or Hambach 303 in Titz-Höllen (Kr. Düren / NRW), separate rectangular cemetery enclosures can be identified.

As the examples of Frimmersdorf 80 & 86/176 in Bedburg-Königshoven (Rhein-Erft-Kr. / NRW) and, to a lesser extent Köln-Müngersdorf (Stadt Köln / NRW) show, outlying grave groups could sometimes be attached to the villa enclosure via an annex and overlying graves might then allow older enclosure walls to be dated.

Large scale excavations have shown that cemeteries could also lie at some distance to the villa enclosure proper, for example at Hambach 59 in Niederzier-Steinstraß (Kr. Düren), where the graves lay in rows along field boundaries. More ostentatious grave architects probably favoured positions close to roads or on higher ground, as is born out by the villa at Nideggen-Wollersheim (Kr. Düren / NRW).

Here, the foundations of three grave structures were found on the highest point of a villa, about 90m from the main building, and facing southeast. Their dimensions leave little doubt that they were the graves of the villa’s owners or tenants. Little survives of one (Bau VIII), so it cannot be interpreted further, but Bau VI seems to consist of a central grave monument, surrounded by a rectangular walled enclosure with niches for urns. Similar plans are known from a cemetery at Bad Münstereifel-Arloff (Kr. Euskirchen / NRW), which may also have belonged to a villa.

The third and largest building (Bau I) had solid, 1.7-1.8m deep foundations of mortared sandstone and conglomerate, and was probably a funerary tower monument, similar to the exceptionally well preserved example at Igel (Kr. Tier / RLP) in Gallia Belgica. However, only the foundation dimensions, a few

fragments of sculpted decoration and two sandstone blocks from the enclosure wall (which were still clamped together), attest to a comparable design at Nideggen. The rest of the structure was demolished at some unknown date, as a readily available source of stone. It shared this fate with most of the larger stone buildings of the province, especially in the areas north of the Mittelgebirge, where stone is scarce. Nevertheless, other villas have produced evidence of monumental grave monuments in their vicinity. For example, a limestone block with acanthus decorations from near the villa at Gut Eich in Wesseling (Rhein-Erft-Kr. / NRW), and an ashlar built, subterranean burial chamber at Köln-Weiden (Stadt Köln / NRW), whose associated villa has not yet been found.

The chamber was originally built as a columbarium, i.e. it was designed to house urns, but an eventual remodelling to act as a mausoleum can be demonstrated for both it and the grave monument above it. The majority of the graves found around the study area villas were cremations, and took the form of Leichenbrandnester (loose clusters of cremated bones), busta (on-site burials of the funeral pyre), Brandschuettunggräber (pits containing the contents of the funeral pyre including any grave goods placed it), Brandgrubengraeber (pits containing the remains of the funeral pyre), urn graves or tile graves.

List of Villae

1 Aachen-Laurensberg
2 Aachen-Vetschau
3 Aldenhoven (WW 130)
4 Aldenhoven-Langweiler (Langw. 9)
5 Aldenhoven-Langweil./Niedermerz
6 Aldenhoven-Niedermerz
7 Aldenhoven-Pattern
8 Aldenhoven-Schleiden
9 Alsdorf-Höngen
10 Altenahr-Kreuzberg/Berg
11 Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler (Silberberg)
12 Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler (Turmrott)
13 Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler (Daubhaus)
14 Bad Neuenahr-Ahr-weiler-Ramersbach
15 Bedburg-Garsdorf
16 Bedburg-Harff
17 Bedburg-Königshoven
18 Bedburg-Königshoven
19 Bedburg-Morken
20 Blankenheim-Hülchrath
21 Bonn-Duisdorf
22 Bonn-Friesdorf
23 Bornheim-Botzdorf
24 Bornheim-Brenig
25 Bornheim-Merten
26 Bornheim-Sechtem
27 Bornheim-Sechtem
28 Brühl
29 Dernau
30 Dormagen-Nievenheim
31 Düren-Arnoldsweiler
32 Düren-Gürzenich
33 Düren-Lendersdorf
34 Düren-Mariaweiler
35 Elsdorf
36 Elsdorf
37 Elsdorf (Ha 104)
38 Elsdorf-Etzweiler (Ha 127)
39 Elsdorf-Giesendorf
40 Elsdorf-Neu-Etzweiler (Ha 132)
41 Elsdorf-Oberembt
42 Erftstadt-Blessem
43 Erftstadt-Dirmerzheim
44 Erftstadt-Liblar/Frauenthal
45 Erkelenz-Commerden
46 Eschweiler
47 Eschweiler-Hastenrath
48 Eschweiler-Laurenzberg-Lürken
49 Eschweiler-Lohn-Erberich (WW 80)
50 Eschweiler-Lohn-Eberich (westl. Erbericher Hof)
51 Eschweiler-Lohn-Fronhoven (südlich Fronhoven)
52 Eschweiler-Lohn-Langendorf
53 Eschweiler-Weisweiler-Hücheln
54 Euskirchen
55 Euskirchen (Roitzheimer Auel)
56 Euskirchen-Euenheim
57 Euskirchen-Kreuzweingarten
58 Euskirchen-Niederkastenholz
59 Frechen
60 Frechen-Königsdorf/ Neufreimersdorf
61 Geilenkirchen-Hommerschen
62 Geilenkirchen-Honsdorf
63 Grevenbroich-Hülchrath
64 Herzogenrath-Herbach
65 Hürth
66 Inden-Altdorf
67 Inden (Lucherberg)
68 Jüchen (FR 129)
69 Jüchen
70 Jüchen-Garzweiler (FR 131)
71 Jüchen -Garzweiler
72 Jüchen-Hackhausen
73 Jüchen-Hochneukirch
74 Jülich-Bourheim
75 Jülich-Kirchberg
76 Jülich-Selgersdorf
77 Jülich-Stetternich (Ha 47)
78 Jülich-Stetternich (Ha 23)
79 Jülich-Stetternich (Ha 503)
80 Kalkar
81 Kerpen-Blatzheim
82 Kerpen-Götzenkirchen
83 Kerpen-Manheim
84 Kerpen-Sindorf
85 Kesseling-Staffel
86 Köln (Barbarossaplatz)
87 Köln (Bahnh. Gereon)
88 Köln (Pantaleonsberg)
89 Köln-Braunsfeld
90 Köln-Müngersdorf
91 Köln-Niehl
92 Köln-Rondorf
93 Köln-Vogelsang
94 Köln-Widdersdorf
95 Köln-Worringen (Blumenbergsweg)
96 Köln-Worringen
97 Kreuzau-Üdingen
98 Langerwehe-Hamich
99 Langerwehe-Jüngersd.
100 Linnich
101 Linnich-Glimbach
102 Mechernich-Breitenbenden
103 Mechernich-Eicks
104 Mechernich-Lessenich
105 Mechernich-Obergartzem
106 Meckenheim (Adendorfer Str.)
107 Meckenheim
108 Mönchengladbach-Beckrath
109 Mönchengladbach-Herrath
110 Mönchengladbach-Högden
111 Mönchengladbach-Rheydt
112 Mönchengladbach-Wickrath
113 Nettersheim-Roderath
114 Neuss-Gnadenthal-M.
115 Neuss-Gnadenthal
116 Neuss-Uedesheim
117 Neuss-Weckhoven
118 Nideggen-Wollersheim
119 Niederzier (Ha 69)
120 Niederzier (Ha 74)
121 Niederzier (Ha 206)
122 Niederzier (Ha 403)
123 Niederzier (Ha 425)
124 Niederzier (Ha 500)
125 Niederzier (Ha 512)
126 Niederzier (Ha 516)
127 Niederzier-Hambach (Ha 56)
128 Niederzier-Hambach (Ha 66)
129 Niederzier-Hambach (Ha 382)
130 Niederzier-Huchem (Rurbenden)
131 Niederzier-Oberzier (Ha 252/252A)
132 Niederzier-Oberzier
133 Niederzier-Steinstraß (Ha 34 u. 419)
134 Niederzier-Steinstraß (Ha 59)
135 Niederzier-Steinstraß (Ha 264)
136 Niederzier-Steinstraß (Ha 412)
137 Niederzier-Steinstraß-Lich (Ha 224)
138 Pulheim Straßentrasse
139 Pulheim
140 Pulheim-Brauweiler
141 Pulheim-Brauweiler (Gewerbegebiet)
142 Pulheim-Geyen
143 Pulheim-Sinnersdorf
144 Rheinbach
145 Rheinbach (Weilerfeld) - Drei Villae (I bis III)
146 Rheinbach
147 Rheinbach-Flerzheim
148 Rommerskirchen-Nettesheim-Butzheim
149 Schuld
150 Stolberg
151 Stolberg-Breinig/Büsbach
152 Titz-Ameln
153 Titz-Höllen (Ha 10)
154 Titz-Höllen (Ha 303)
155 Übach-Palenberg
156 Vettweiss-Froitzheim
157 Vettweiß-Soller
158 Viersen-Oberrahser
159 Wachtberg-Adendorf
160 Waldorf (Walburgis)
161 Weeze
162 Weeze-Baal
163 Weilerswist-Klein Vernich
164 Wesseling
165 Wesseling-Keldenich
166 Würselen
167 Würselen-Broichweiden
168 Würselen-Haal-Oppen

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Spiegel 2005 E.M.Spiegel, Unruhige Zeiten auf dem Land. Ein römischer Gutshof wird nach 350 Jahren aufgegeben. In: Horn u.a. 2005, 462ff.

Stauffer 2004 A.Stauffer, Ein Goldbrokat aus Weilerswist-Klein-Vernich. Archäologie im Rheinland 2004, 113ff.

Stoetzel 1999 D.W.Stoetzel, Die römerzeitlichen Funde der Grabungen von St. Pantaleon zu Köln. Kölner Jahrb. 32, 1999, 823ff.

Swoboda 1919 K.M.Swoboda, Römische und romanische Paläste. Eine architekturgeschichtliche Untersuchung (Wien 1919).

Thomas 1992 R.Thomas, Eine römische Vorstadtvilla auf dem Barbarossaplatz. Archäologie in Köln 1, 1992, 56ff.

Thomas 1993 R.Thomas, Römische Wandmalerei in Köln. Kölner Forschungen 6 (Mainz 1993).

Tichelman 2000 G.Tichelman, Ein latènezeitlicher Siedlungsplatz in Neu-Vilich. Archäologie im Rheinland 2000, 59ff.

Troll 2004 S.Troll, Die Wasserversorgung einer villa rustica bei Frechen-Königsdorf. Archäologie im Rheinland 2004, 94ff.

Tutlies 1999 P.Tutlies, Römischer Wohlstand in Wesseling. Archäologie im Rheinland 1999, 87ff.

Tutlies 2001 P.Tutlies, Vom Speicherbau der Eisenzeit zur Produktionshalle des 21. Jahrhunderts. Archäologie im Rheinland 2001, 49f.

Tutlies u.a. 1999 P.Tutlies / J.Weiner, Bandkeramische, eisenzeitliche und römische Siedlungsspuren bei Eschweiler-Weisweiler. Archäologie im Rheinland 1999, 48ff.

Ulbert 1993 C.Ulbert, Prospektion und Grabung in Meckenheim bei Bonn. Archäologie im Rheinland 1993, 41ff.

Ulbert 2002 C.Ulbert, Ein römischer Siedlungsplatz in Rheinbach ,Knöttebende´: Pospektion und Grabung. Archäologie im Rheinland 2002, 82f.

Ulbert 2002a C.Ulbert, Eine gut erhaltene römische villa rustica in Botzdorf. Archäologie im Rheinland 2002, 89ff.

Ulbert 2005 C.Ulbert, Der römische Töpferofen von Bornheim- Botzdorf. In: Horn u.a. 2005, 376f.

Wagner 1987 P.Wagner, Die römische Siedlung in Wesseling, Gut Eichholz. Archäologie im Rheinland 1987, 74f.

Wagner 1992 P.Wagner, Deutsch-niederländische Ausgrabungen an der villa rustica bei Aachen-Vetschau. Archäologie im Rheinland 1992, 52ff.

Wagner 1992a P.Wagner, Balineum vetustate conlapsum de suo restituerunt. Archäologie im Rheinland 1992, 200ff.

Wagner 1998 P.Wagner, Ein römischer Übergang über die Rur bei Kreuzau-Üdingen? Archäologie im Rheinland 1998, 57ff.

Wagner 1999 P.Wagner, Gigant und Syrinx, Bergkristall und Malergrab. Archäologie im Rheinland 1999, 113ff.

Wagner 2003 P.Wagner, Bergung und Untersuchung der römischen Bestattungen von Weilerswist-Klein Vernich. Archäologie im Rheinland 2003, 110ff.

Wagner u.a. 1995 P.Wagner / G.Bauchhenß, Die römischen Brunnen von Geilenkirchen-Hommerschen. In: Horn u.a. 1995, 244ff.

Weber u.a. 1998 C.Weber / R.Zantopp, Die römische villa rustica bei Liblar-Frauenthal. Archäologie im Rheinland 1998, 65ff.

Weerth 1900 E. aus'm Weerth, Kreuzweingarten, römische Anlagen und Funde. In: P.Clemen (Hrsg.), Die Kunstdenkmäler der Rheinprovinz IV - Kreis Euskirchen (Düsseldorf 1900) 187f.

Wetzels 1997 E.P.G.Wetzels, Frischwasser für eine villa rustica. Eine Wasserleitung bei Weisweiler. Archäologie im Rheinland 1997, 63f.

White 1994 G.L.White, Ein römisches Landgut bei Commerden. Archäologie im Rheinland 1994, 67ff.

Wilhelmi 1980 K.Wilhelmi, Straßenbauer retten Römerbauten. Das Rheinische Landemuseum Bonn 1980, 21ff.

Wippern 1995 J.J.M.Wippern, Magnetometermessungen auf dem Gelände einer villa rustica bei Dirmerzheim. Archäologie im Rheinland 1995, 159ff.

Wirtz 1993 R.Wirtz, Die villa rustica von Aachen-Süsterfeld. Archäologie im Rheinland 1993, 78ff.

Wohlfarth 1994 C.Wohlfarth, Römische Besiedlung im Raum Euskirchen am Beispiel der Erdgastrasse Bonn - Euskirchen. Archäologie im Rheinland 1994, 64ff.

Wolff 1981 G.Wolff, Das Römisch-Germanische Köln. Führer zu Museum und Stadt (Köln 1981).

Wulfmeier 2002 J.C.Wulfmeier, Römerzeitliche Gräber im Weilerfeld. Archäologie im Rheinland 2002, 99-101.

Zangemeister 1879 E.Zangemeister, Ziegelinschriften aus Mariaweiler und Bonn. Bonner Jahrb. 67, 1879, 73ff.

Zantopp 1988 R.Zantopp, Die allmähliche Gefährdung eines Bodendenkmals bei Mechernich-Obergartzem. Archäologie im Rheinland 1988, 64f.

Zedelius 1979 V.Zedelius, Tetricus Typ Ha 56 - Lokale Münzprägung des 3. Jahrh. im Hambacher Forst. In: Katalog Bonn 1979, 113f.

	Hambach 382 in Niederzier-Hambach (Kr. Düren / NRW): Schematic drawing of a timber well casing from the villa site		Schematic drawing of the Roman stone-lined well over a layer of timber beams in the lower German loess belt
	Jüchen-Hackhausen; Partially preserved timber lined well from the area of the villa
	Geilenkirchen-Hommerschen; Preserved ring of timber beams from a stone-lined well from the area of the villa		Euskirchen; Hollowed out tree-trunk used as a well lining from the area of the villa of Aue des Euenheimer Fließes

Villae Rusticae in southern Germania Inferior

Topographical and historical conditions

Pre-Roman settlements

Continuation of pre-Roman building traditions under the Roman administration

The development of the rural landscape in the early Roman period.

Plan and structure of the villae rusticae

Residences, bath buildings and their decoration

Ancillary buildings and the farms’ economic basis

Sanctuaries

Enclosures and subdivisions

Information on the villa owners

Graves

List of Villae

Bibliography


Tribal territories 58-51 v.Chr.	Tribal territories 1. Jh. n.Chr.


Bonn-Bad Godesberg-Muffendorf	Niederzier-Hambach	Eschweiler-Laurenzberg	Eschweiler-Lohn	Jüchen-Hochneukirch


Hambach 127 Elzdorf-Etzweiler	Hambach 69 in Niederzier	Hambach 512 in Niederzier	Hambach 516 in Niederzier


Villas Hambach 69, 403, 443, 512 and 516	Altitudes within the Hambacher Forst, with the villas Hambach 69, 403, 443, 512 and 516


Jüchen-Hochneukirch	Pulheim-Brauweiler	Frimmersdorf 129 in Jüchen	Langweiler 9 in Aldenhoven-Langweiler


Hambach 56 Niederzier-Hambach	Hambach 252 Niederzier-Oberzier


Hambach 74 in Niederzier	Blankenheim-Hülchrath	Silberberg in Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler


Köln-Braunsfeld	Neuss-Gnadental	Rheinbach-Flerzheim	Rommerskirchen-Nettesheim-Butzheim


Blankenheim-Hülchrath	Eschweiler-Laurenzberg-Lürken	Weilerswist-Klein Vernich


Silberberg in Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler	Köln-Müngersdorf	Bedburg-Morken	Jülich-Kirchberg


Köln-Longerich; Rekonstruktionszeichnung der Jupitersäule	Weisweiler 112 in Jülich-Kirchberg; Teile einer Jupitersäule mit thronender Krönungsfigur	Titz-Ameln; gestürzter "Gigant" als Teil einer eine Jupitersäule krönenden Figurengruppe


Silberberg in Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler	Hambach 206 in Niederzier


Hambach 127 in Elsdorf-Etzweiler	Hambach 132 in Elsdorf-Neu-Etzweiler

Hambach 56 in Niederzier-Hambach	Köln-Braunsfeld


Eschweiler-Laurenzberg-Lürken	Euskirchen-Kreuzweingarten	Bedburg-Morken


Köln-Müngersdorf	Eschweiler-Laurenzberg-Lürken	Hambach 127 in Elzdorf-Etzweiler	Futher examples of granaries on villa sites in the southern German loess belt


Köln-Müngersdorf	Hambach 132 in Elzdorf-Neu-Etzweiler	Hambach 303 in Titz-Höllen


Frechen-Königsdorf/Neufreimersdorf	Frimmersdorf 80 bzw. 86/176 in Bedburg-Königshoven